2 Nouns
10 Kinds and function
A) There are four kinds of noun in English:
Common nouns: dog. man, table
Proper nouns: France, Madrid, Mrs Smith, Tom
Abstract nouns: beauty, chanty, courage, fear. joy
Collective nouns: crowd, flock, group, swarm, team
The subject of a verb: Tom arrived.
The complement of the verbs be, become, seem: Tom is an actor.
The object of a verb: I saw Tom.
The object of a preposition: / spoke to Tom.
A noun can also be in the possessive case: Tom's books.
11 Gender
A Masculine: men, boys and male animals (pronoun he/they).
Feminine: women, girls and female animals (pronoun she/they).
Neuter: inanimate things, animals whose sex we don't know and sometimes babies whose sex we don't know (pronoun it/they).
Exceptions: ships and sometimes cars and other vehicles when regarded with affection or respect are considered feminine. Countries when referred to by name are also normally considered feminine.
The ship struck an iceberg, which tore a huge hole in her side.
Scotland lost many of her bravest men in two great rebellions.
B Masculine/feminine nouns denoting people
1 Different forms;
(a) boy, girl gentleman, lady son, daughter, bachelor, spinster, husband, wife uncle, aunt, bridegroom, bride man, woman widower, widow, father, mother nephew, niece
Main exceptions:
baby infant relative child parent spouse cousin relation teenager
(b) duke, duchess king, queen prince, princess
earl, countess lord, lady
2 The majority of nouns indicating occupation have the same form:
artist cook driver guide
assistant dancer doctor etc.
Main exceptions:
actor, actress host, hostess
conductor, conductress manager, manageress
heir, Heiress steward, stewardess
hero, heroine waiter, waitress
Also salesman, saleswoman etc., but sometimes -person is used instead of -man, -woman: salesperson, spokesperson.
C Domestic animals and many of the larger wild animals have different forms:
bull, cow duck, drake, ram, ewe, stallion, mare
cock, hen gander, goose stag, doe tiger, tigress
dog, bitch lion, lioness
Others have the same form.
12 Plurals
A) The plural of a noun is usually made by adding s to the singular:
day, days dog, dogs house, houses
s is pronounced /s/ after a p, k or f sound. Otherwise it is pronounced /z/.
When s is placed after ce, ge, se or ze an extra syllable (/iz/) is added to the spoken word.
Other plural forms
B) Nouns ending in o or ch, sh. ss or x form their plural by adding es:
tomato, tomatoes brush, brushes box, boxes
church, churches kiss, kisses
But words of foreign origin or abbreviated words ending in o add s only:
dynamo, dynamos kimono, kimonos piano, pianos
kilo, kilos photo, photos soprano, sopranos
When es is placed after ch, sh, ss or x an extra syllable (/iz/) is added to the spoken word.
C) Nouns ending in y following a consonant form their plural by dropping the y and adding ies:
baby, babies country, countries fly, flies lady, ladies
Nouns ending in y following a vowel form their plural by adding s:
boy, boys day. days donkey, donkeys guy, guys
D) Twelve nouns ending in f or fe drop the f or fe and add ves. These nouns are calf. half, knife, leaf. life, loaf, self. sheaf, shelf, thief, wife, wolf:
loaf, loaves wife, wives wolf. wolves etc.
The nouns hoof, scar/and wharf take either s or ves in the plural:
hoofs or hooves scarfs or scarves wharfs or wharves
Other words ending in f or fe add s in the ordinary way:
cliff, cliffs handkerchief, handkerchiefs safe, safes
E) A few nouns form their plural by a vowel change:
foot. feet louse, lice mouse, mice woman, women
goose, geese man, men tooth, teeth
The plurals of child and ox are children, oxen.
F) Names of certain creatures do not change in the plural.
fish is normally unchanged, fishes exists but is uncommon. Some types of fish do not normally change in the plural:
carp pike salmon trout
cod plaice squid turbot
mackerel
but if used in a plural sense they would take a plural verb. Others add s:
crabs herrings sardines
eels lobsters sharks
deer and sheep do not change: one sheep, two sheep.
Sportsmen who shoot duck, partridge, pheasant etc. use the same form for singular and plural. But other people normally add s for the plural: ducks, partridges, pheasants.
The word game. used by sportsmen to mean an animal/animals hunted, is always in the singular, and takes a singular verb.
G A few other words don't change:
aircraft, craft (boat/boats) quid (slang for £1}
counsel (barristers working in court)
Some measurements and numbers do not change
H Collective nouns, crew, family, team etc.. can take a singular or plural verb; singular if we consider the word to mean a single group or unit:
Our team is the best
or plural if we take it to mean a number of individuals:
Our team are wearing their new jerseys.
When a possessive adjective is necessary, a plural verb with their is more usual than a singular verb with its, though sometimes both are possible:
The Jury is considering its verdict.
The jury are considering their verdict.
I Certain words are always plural and take a plural verb:
Clothes police
garments consisting of two parts:
breeches pants pajama trousers etc.
and tools and instruments consisting of two parts:
binoculars pliers scissors spectacles
glasses scales shears etc.
Also certain other words including:
arms (weapons) particulars
damages (compensation) premises/quarters
earnings riches
goods/wares savings
greens (vegetables) spirits (alcohol)
grounds stairs
outskirts surroundings
pains (trouble/effort) valuables
J A number words ending in ics, acoustics, athletics, ethics, hysterics. mathematics, physics, politics etc., which are plural in form, normally take a plural verb:
His mathematics are weak.
But names of sciences can sometimes be considered singular:
Mathematics is an exact science.
K Words plural in form but singular in meaning include news:
The news is good
certain diseases:
mumps rickets shingles
and certain games:
billiards darts draughts bowls dominoes
L Some words which retain their original Greek or Latin forms make their plurals according to the rules of Greek and Latin:
crisis, crises phenomenon, phenomena
erratum, errata radius, radii
memorandum, memoranda terminus, termini
oasis, oases
But some follow the English rules:
dogma, dogmas gymnasium, gymnasiums
formula, formulas (though formulae is used by scientists)
Sometimes there are two plural forms with different meanings:
appendix, appendixes or appendices (medical terms)
appendix, appendices (addition/s to a book)
index, indexes (in books), indices (in mathematics)
Musicians usually prefer Italian plural forms for Italian musical terms:
libretto, libretti tempo, tempi
But s is also possible: librettos, tempos.
M Compound nouns
1- Normally the last word is made plural:
boy-friends break-ins travel agents
But where man and woman is prefixed both parts are made plural:
men drivers women drivers
2 - The first word is made plural with compounds formed of verb + er nouns + adverbs:
hangers-on lookers-on runners-up
and with compounds composed of noun + preposition + noun:
ladies-in-waiting sisters-in-law wards of court
3 - Initials can be made plural:
MPs (Members of Parliament)
VIPs (very important persons)
OAPs (old age pensioners)
UFOs (unidentified flying objects)
شارك الموضوع وتابعنا في هذا الكورس ستتعلم الكثير
قولنا ايه رأيك في تعليق
هل استفدت من هذه المحاضرة أم لا
لا تبخل علينا بتعليق
12 Plurals
A) The plural of a noun is usually made by adding s to the singular:
day, days dog, dogs house, houses
s is pronounced /s/ after a p, k or f sound. Otherwise it is pronounced /z/.
When s is placed after ce, ge, se or ze an extra syllable (/iz/) is added to the spoken word.
Other plural forms
B) Nouns ending in o or ch, sh. ss or x form their plural by adding es:
tomato, tomatoes brush, brushes box, boxes
church, churches kiss, kisses
But words of foreign origin or abbreviated words ending in o add s only:
dynamo, dynamos kimono, kimonos piano, pianos
kilo, kilos photo, photos soprano, sopranos
When es is placed after ch, sh, ss or x an extra syllable (/iz/) is added to the spoken word.
C) Nouns ending in y following a consonant form their plural by dropping the y and adding ies:
baby, babies country, countries fly, flies lady, ladies
Nouns ending in y following a vowel form their plural by adding s:
boy, boys day. days donkey, donkeys guy, guys
D) Twelve nouns ending in f or fe drop the f or fe and add ves. These nouns are calf. half, knife, leaf. life, loaf, self. sheaf, shelf, thief, wife, wolf:
loaf, loaves wife, wives wolf. wolves etc.
The nouns hoof, scar/and wharf take either s or ves in the plural:
hoofs or hooves scarfs or scarves wharfs or wharves
Other words ending in f or fe add s in the ordinary way:
cliff, cliffs handkerchief, handkerchiefs safe, safes
E) A few nouns form their plural by a vowel change:
foot. feet louse, lice mouse, mice woman, women
goose, geese man, men tooth, teeth
The plurals of child and ox are children, oxen.
F) Names of certain creatures do not change in the plural.
fish is normally unchanged, fishes exists but is uncommon. Some types of fish do not normally change in the plural:
carp pike salmon trout
cod plaice squid turbot
mackerel
but if used in a plural sense they would take a plural verb. Others add s:
crabs herrings sardines
eels lobsters sharks
deer and sheep do not change: one sheep, two sheep.
Sportsmen who shoot duck, partridge, pheasant etc. use the same form for singular and plural. But other people normally add s for the plural: ducks, partridges, pheasants.
The word game. used by sportsmen to mean an animal/animals hunted, is always in the singular, and takes a singular verb.
G A few other words don't change:
aircraft, craft (boat/boats) quid (slang for £1}
counsel (barristers working in court)
Some measurements and numbers do not change
H Collective nouns, crew, family, team etc.. can take a singular or plural verb; singular if we consider the word to mean a single group or unit:
Our team is the best
or plural if we take it to mean a number of individuals:
Our team are wearing their new jerseys.
When a possessive adjective is necessary, a plural verb with their is more usual than a singular verb with its, though sometimes both are possible:
The Jury is considering its verdict.
The jury are considering their verdict.
I Certain words are always plural and take a plural verb:
Clothes police
garments consisting of two parts:
breeches pants pajama trousers etc.
and tools and instruments consisting of two parts:
binoculars pliers scissors spectacles
glasses scales shears etc.
Also certain other words including:
arms (weapons) particulars
damages (compensation) premises/quarters
earnings riches
goods/wares savings
greens (vegetables) spirits (alcohol)
grounds stairs
outskirts surroundings
pains (trouble/effort) valuables
J A number words ending in ics, acoustics, athletics, ethics, hysterics. mathematics, physics, politics etc., which are plural in form, normally take a plural verb:
His mathematics are weak.
But names of sciences can sometimes be considered singular:
Mathematics is an exact science.
K Words plural in form but singular in meaning include news:
The news is good
certain diseases:
mumps rickets shingles
and certain games:
billiards darts draughts bowls dominoes
L Some words which retain their original Greek or Latin forms make their plurals according to the rules of Greek and Latin:
crisis, crises phenomenon, phenomena
erratum, errata radius, radii
memorandum, memoranda terminus, termini
oasis, oases
But some follow the English rules:
dogma, dogmas gymnasium, gymnasiums
formula, formulas (though formulae is used by scientists)
Sometimes there are two plural forms with different meanings:
appendix, appendixes or appendices (medical terms)
appendix, appendices (addition/s to a book)
index, indexes (in books), indices (in mathematics)
Musicians usually prefer Italian plural forms for Italian musical terms:
libretto, libretti tempo, tempi
But s is also possible: librettos, tempos.
M Compound nouns
1- Normally the last word is made plural:
boy-friends break-ins travel agents
But where man and woman is prefixed both parts are made plural:
men drivers women drivers
2 - The first word is made plural with compounds formed of verb + er nouns + adverbs:
hangers-on lookers-on runners-up
and with compounds composed of noun + preposition + noun:
ladies-in-waiting sisters-in-law wards of court
3 - Initials can be made plural:
MPs (Members of Parliament)
VIPs (very important persons)
OAPs (old age pensioners)
UFOs (unidentified flying objects)
شارك الموضوع وتابعنا في هذا الكورس ستتعلم الكثير
قولنا ايه رأيك في تعليق
هل استفدت من هذه المحاضرة أم لا
لا تبخل علينا بتعليق
